Authors: Connolly, H., Martinez Lucio, M., Marino, S., and Smith, H.

Presenter: Heather Connolly

Abstract:

Workplace equality frameworks across Europe have evolved through a combination of legislation, industrial relations mechanisms, and employer-led initiatives. However, these frameworks remain uneven and contested. Despite differing traditions, France, the UK, Spain, and the Netherlands share key silences and closures—areas of exclusion and resistance shaping equality outcomes. Drawing on Hyman et al.’s (2012) concept of social regulation, this study analyses institutional constraints, trade union strategies and employer policies. Drawing on over 150 interviews from an ESRC-funded project, we explore how law, employer strategies, and unions shape equality.

We examine four dimensions of workplace equality. First, regulatory frameworks and the persistence of institutional silences. The UK’s Equality Act (2010) provides legal coverage, but enforcement gaps remain. France and Spain prioritise gender equality but lack provisions for race and ethnicity. The Netherlands relies on “soft law” for migrant workers, reducing protections. Second, trade unions’ role in workplace equality varies. Historically male-dominated, unions have struggled to prioritise equality. In Spain and the Netherlands, collective agreements address flexible work but implementation is inconsistent. In France, bargaining is increasingly managerial. The UK’s weakened bargaining structures leave equality to employer initiatives. Third, race and migration remain marginal. Many countries prioritise gender over racial equality. France and Spain lack ethnic data collection, while UK ethnic pay gap reporting faces resistance. Finally, economic and political constraints shape equality. France’s social dialogue has become managerial, UK employment reforms create uncertainty, and Spain and the Netherlands balance state intervention with employer resistance.

Our research examines the interplay between industrial relations, employer strategies, and state policies in shaping workplace equality. While legal frameworks and bargaining mechanisms exist, their effectiveness varies significantly across different contexts. The increasing reliance on soft law and corporate diversity initiatives raises concerns about the gradual erosion of legal protections. Our findings show the need for stronger enforcement mechanisms, more inclusive bargaining processes, and an intersectional approach to workplace equality.